what changes from proficient overarm throwing to throwing for accuracy?

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• PMC7427625

Front Psychol. 2020; 11: 2006.

The Effects of Target Location Upon Throwing Velocity and Accuracy in Experienced Female Handball Players

Received 2020 May 18; Accepted 2020 Jul 20.

Information Availability Argument

The raw data supporting the conclusions of this article will exist made bachelor past the authors, without undue reservation.

Abstract

The purpose of this study was to investigate the outcome on throwing performance (velocity and accuracy) of experienced female handball players when throwing at 4 different targets in a handball goal. Thirteen experienced female handball players (age xviii.2 ± 1.7 years, height 1.7 ± 0.10 one thousand, mass 68.1 ± xix.6 kg, and training feel 9.5 ± 3.vii years) performed ten throws from a 7 m distance at each corner of the handball goal with maximal attempt. Maximal ball velocity was recorded with a radar gun together with mean radial error, centroid mistake, and bivariate variable error, every bit measurements of accurateness. The primary findings were that the ball velocity was higher when throwing at targets at the ipsilateral side, compared with the contralateral side, while throwing consistency (bivariate variable error) decreased when throwing at the contralateral side upper corner. No velocity-accuracy trade-off was found between the 4 targets. Based upon the findings, it is suggested that players throw to the (upper) ipsilateral side of the goal when performing a penalty throw, dependent on the goalkeepers' position, since the brawl velocity is the highest here, without losing accuracy. This gives the goalkeeper less time to react and stop the ball, thereby giving the player the highest take chances of scoring.

Keywords: overarm throwing, coordination, ball velocity, accuracy, Fitts' police, speed accurateness merchandise-off, motor control

Introduction

Team handball is an Olympic team sport in which two teams of vii players each, compete confronting each other. The nearly important task for both teams is to score more goals than the opponent. To score goals, accuracy and velocity are the 2 primary factors. There are several possible strategies of performing a goal-directed throw: just throwing as fast as possible without whatever intent to aim accurately, trying to surprise the opponent/goalkeeper by the velocity of the throw (goalkeeper independent strategies) or by deceptive deportment when performing a throw or throwing as accurately as possible, and trying to go along the brawl out of reach of the opponent (goalkeeper dependent strategies; van der Kamp, 2006).

Different trade-offs between velocity and accurateness are reported in the literature based on different theoretical principles that apply to different movements (Fitts, 1954; Sherwood and Schmidt, 1980; Plamondon and Alimi, 1997). In these studies, it was found that velocity and accuracy were influenced in an changed mode. Thus, when aiming for velocity the accuracy decreases and when aiming for accuracy the velocity decreases. This relationship was also plant in earlier studies in handball throwing (Indermill and Husak, 1984; Etnyre, 1998). Still, later studies showed that this happens only in part (van den Tillaar and Ettema, 2003a,b, 2006, 2009a); throwing velocity decreases when accuracy was more important, but the accuracy of the performance was not improve when focusing upon accuracy; thereby these findings did not follow the traditional speed-accuracy trade-off, also chosen Fitts' police force (Fitts, 1954).

However, in all of these previous studies in handball, the target was straight forrard, which does not accept much external validity in the sport, because this is where the goalkeeper stands. Rivilla-Garcia et al. (2011) establish that throwing velocity was already decreased when a goalkeeper was in the goal compared to throws without an opponent. Hence, information technology seems reasonable to suggest that throwing to the left and right, upper and lower corners of the goal is initiated by different control and movement strategies than direct forward throws and thereby maybe apply unlike motor plan schemas (Schmidt, 1982). Detailed knowledge about this may assist to clarify the underlying mechanisms of the speed-accurateness trade-off (Fitts, 1954; Plamondon and Alimi, 1997). Additionally, the findings may have some practical implications regarding which corner of the goal yous should throw to, in social club to accept the largest take a chance of succeeding (highest throwing velocity and/or accurateness) when the strategy of the actor is goalkeeper independent. In the keeper-independent strategy, the shooter selects a target location in accelerate and disregards the goalkeeper'due south actions (van der Kamp, 2006), in which velocity is the main aim and accurateness is the secondary aim (van den Tillaar and Ettema, 2003a, 2006, 2009a).

Therefore, the purpose of this study was to investigate the effects of target location upon throwing operation (velocity and accuracy) in experienced female person handball throwers in vii m throws. It was hypothesized that maximal ball velocity to the contralateral side of the throwing arm is higher than on the ipsilateral side due to the possible use of the longitudinal rotation of the pelvis and body (Wagner et al., 2010, 2011), causing a longer working trajectory, as constitute in soccer kick (van den Tillaar and Fuglstad, 2016). In addition, it can be hypothesized that when the throwing velocity is higher, the accurateness of throwing decreases. Thus, the target in which the brawl velocity is the highest will have the lowest accuracy, post-obit Fitts' police (Fitts, 1954). Thereby, it is expected that throwing to the contralateral side would result in higher velocity but with lower accuracy and so throws to the ipsilateral side.

Materials and Methods

I used a repeated-measures pattern to investigate the effects of target location upon throwing performance (velocity and accuracy). Each field of study performed 10 throws at each target in a random order.

Participants

13 female person team handball players (historic period 18.2 ± i.seven years, acme 1.7 ± 0.10 thou, body mass 68.1 ± 9.6 kg, and preparation feel ix.5 ± three.7 years), playing in the highest Norwegian national contest, volunteered for the written report. Testing was conducted in the center of the handball flavor (January–February) always betwixt 10 AM and 5 PM. The participants were fully informed virtually the protocol before participating in this study. Informed consent was obtained prior to all testing from all participants and their parents, with the approval of the Norwegian Centre for Research Data and a further approving by an Ethics Committee was not required as per applicable institutional and national guidelines and regulations.

Procedure

Afterwards a general warm-up of 15 min, which included some jogging and warming up the shoulder and throwing arm, throwing performance was tested in a seven m throw situation as this is a penalisation throw regularly performed in handball. The subjects performed a continuing throw, which means keeping the front foot on the floor the whole-fourth dimension during throwing. The participants started by holding the brawl with both hands in front of them. The subjects were instructed to throw as fast as possible and endeavour to hit the target (van den Tillaar and Ettema, 2003b) from 7 1000 distance with a regular brawl (0.35 kg), aiming at one of the four targets located 0.25 m from each corner (up and down) of the standard handball goal (2 × 3 thousand), which was drawn upon a wall (Effigy one). All subjects were right-handed except one for whom everything was mirrored. Each subject was instructed to throw 10 times at each of the four target locations, resulting in xl throws per subject area. The different target locations were given in a random order to avoid fatigue, learning or any other time-related furnishings, which might affect the results in a systematic fashion. The random guild was based on a random number generator. The subjects had approximately a ane-min rest between each throw.

Experimental setup with the different targets and distances.

Measurements

Maximal ball velocity was measured using a Doppler radar gun (Stalker ATS II, Applied Concepts Inc., Plano, Texas) with ±0.028 m/south accuracy within a field of 10 degrees from the gun. The radar gun was located ii m behind the participant, at throwing height, during the throw.

Throwing accuracy was measured (50 Hz) with a video camera (Sony HDR FX thou, Tokyo, Japan) at a altitude of 15 1000 from the goal. The camera was placed such that the subject area did not obstruct the visual field of the camera toward the goal (Figure 1). The x and y positions of the eye of the ball at the moment that the brawl striking the wall (goal) from the center of the target location aim were measured with a ruler with an accurateness in mm, when the video camera was connected to a 0.six by i.0 chiliad flat screen. The two by three m goal was used every bit a calibration frame. Accurateness was measured as mean radial error: the boilerplate of the absolute distance to the eye of the target; bivariate variable error, as well called consistency: the average of the accented distance to the subject'south own midpoint; and centroid error, likewise chosen bias: the accented distance of a discipline'due south midpoint to the absolute midpoint (Effigy 2), as described by van den Tillaar and Ettema (2003b).

Accuracy measurements for each target. Hateful radial error (MRE) was measured as the boilerplate of absolute distance to the center of the target. The subject'due south ain midpoint is measured equally the average striking location over all trials per target per field of study, whereby the centroid fault (CE) is the absolute distance of the subject field'south own midpoint to absolute target midpoint. Bivariate variable error (BVE), as well referred to as consistency, is the average of the accented distance to the subject's own midpoint.

Statistics

To compare the ball velocity and accurateness, a one-way ANOVA with repeated measures (iv different target locations) was used with Holm-Bonferroni post hoc tests. When the assumption of sphericity was violated, the Greenhouse-Geisser adjustments of p were reported. The significance level was fix at p ≤ 0.05. Statistical assay was performed in SPSS version 24.0 (SPSS, Inc., Chicago, IL). All results are presented equally mean ± standard deviations unless otherwise stated. Effect size was evaluated with η ² (eta partial squared), where 0.01 < η ^two < 0.06 constitutes a small issue, 0.06 < η ² < 0.xiv constitutes a medium upshot, and η ² > 0.14 constitutes a big effect (Cohen, 1988).

Results

Maximal ball velocity was significantly affected past the target location (F = xi.4, p < 0.001, η ⁱⁱ = 0.49; Figure three). Postal service hoc comparisons showed that the ball velocity was significantly higher when throwing at the upper ipsilateral side compared with both target locations on the contralateral side. In addition, the ball velocity was higher when throwing at the lower ipsilateral side corner compared to the upper contralateral side corner (Effigy three). Of the different accuracy measurements, but the bivariate variable error (F = 3.eight, p = 0.017, η ^two = 0.24; Figure 4C) was significantly afflicted past the target location, while no significant effects found for the centroid error (F = 1.iv, p = 0.254, η ² = 0.11; Effigy 4B), and the mean radial fault (F = one.8, p = 0.195, η ² = 0.13; Figure 4A). Mail service hoc comparisons showed that the bivariate variable fault in the upper contralateral corner was significantly higher than in the two low corners in the goal (Figure 4C).

Average ball velocity for each target location in the goal from each target of the goal. ^*indicates a pregnant difference in ball velocity betwixt these two target locations on a p < 0.05 level.

(A) MRE, (B) CE, and (C) BVE averaged over all participants for each target location. ^*indicates a significant departure in ball velocity betwixt these two target locations on a p < 0.05 level.

Give-and-take

In this report, the effect of target location upon throwing operation (velocity and accurateness) in experienced female handball players was examined. The main findings were that the ball velocity was college when throwing at targets at the ipsilateral side, compared with the contralateral side (Effigy 3), while throwing consistency (bivariate variable error) decreased when throwing at a target at the upper corner of the contralateral side (Figure iv).

The findings on maximal ball velocity were opposite from the hypothesis, which was postulated. College ball velocity was expected at the contralateral side due to the possible use of the rotation effectually the longitudinal centrality of the pelvis and trunk, as found in soccer kicking (van den Tillaar and Fuglstad, 2016). A possible discrepancy with the findings on soccer kicking is that, in overarm throwing, the primary contributors of the maximal brawl velocity are the internal shoulder rotation and elbow extension movements (van den Tillaar and Ettema, 2007). These 2 movements are forward-orientated, and a combination of these two movements volition result in the ball traveling frontward and to the ipsilateral side. Thereby, to shoot to the contralateral side, pelvis and/or trunk rotation should occur in order to aim to that side. The maximal pelvis (0.13–0.17 earlier brawl release) and trunk rotation (0.06–0.08 before brawl release) movements occur early in the throw, during the acceleration phase (Fradet et al., 2004; van den Tillaar and Ettema, 2007, 2009b; Wagner et al., 2010, 2011; van den Tillaar et al., 2013). These movements could contribute just a little to the maximal brawl velocity (Wagner et al., 2010, 2011) due to the early on occurrence of these movements compared to the maximal internal shoulder rotation and maximal elbow extension movements, which occur around ball release (±0.01 s before and later on ball release). Since the timing of the maximal pelvis and trunk rotations occurs and so early and timing is crucial for authentic throwing, it is likely that minor inaccuracies in timing of these 2 movements cause differences in accuracy, as observed when throwing at the upper corner of the contralateral side (Figure four). The consistency (bivariate variable error) is less here than at the targets in the ii lower corners.

No other significant differences in hitting accurateness (hateful radial error and centroid error) were found betwixt any of the targets, indicating that accuracy does not change much when aiming for these targets. The average accuracy was like to previous studies in which players had to throw straight forward (van den Tillaar and Ettema, 2003a,b, 2006, 2009a), indicating that throwing at a corner in the goal does not decrease hitting accuracy compared with throwing direct frontwards.

When the principal attending is upon throwing every bit fast equally possible and the secondary aim is trying to hit the target in one of the four corners of the goal, no velocity-accurateness trade-off occurs. This is in agreement with the findings of previous studies (van den Tillaar and Ettema, 2003a, 2006, 2009a) in which instructions with unlike priorities (velocity and/or accuracy) did not change accuracy, indicating that handball players do not follow Fitts' law (Fitts, 1954), whereas in sprint throwing (van den Tillaar and Aune, 2019) and soccer kicking (van den Tillaar and Ulvik, 2014; van den Tillaar and Fuglstad, 2016), a velocity-accuracy trade-off was constitute. Reason for this could exist that in handball throwing with different priorities (velocity and/or accuracy) occurs at velocities of more than 85% of maximal ball velocity, in which execution strength-variability decreases (Sherwood and Schmidt, 1980; Schmidt and Lee, 1999). Thereby, fast and discrete movements like overarm throwing get more consistent when performed with maximal or most maximal intensity. In dart throwing and soccer kicking studies by van den Tillaar and colleagues (van den Tillaar and Ulvik, 2014; van den Tillaar and Fuglstad, 2016; van den Tillaar and Aune, 2019), the velocity decreased to nether fourscore% of maximum when accuracy was prioritized and, thereby, according to Schmidt and Lee (1999), force-variability increases which, again, increases inaccuracy. In the present written report, no prioritizing was necessary; thereby, the lowest velocity (contralateral upper corner) was withal 95% of maximal ball velocity compared with the ipsilateral upper corner, which caused no major accuracy changes to occur (Figure iv).

Nevertheless, the present study has some limitations. Firstly, merely vii m throws were measured, which does not have much ecological validity during handball matches (except during penalty throws) since players in matches generally throw from half dozen to 10 m distance at the goal with a goalkeeper and defenders in between with a preliminary run upwards and/or leap (Michalsik et al., 2015). In addition, only women were measured. Men, in general, throw faster (van den Tillaar and Cabri, 2012) and perhaps, thereby, have a dissimilar velocity-accuracy profile than women. The feel level of the players was high simply with college level (international) or lower level players the findings could be different, which must be investigated in new studies before we can generalize the findings to larger populations. Furthermore, no 3D kinematics were conducted to investigate where, in the throwing motility, changes occur that cause these differences in velocity and accuracy. These measurements could give more information near movement control and performance determinants in throwing. Future studies should include 3D measurements, with men, from dissimilar levels and performed with a similar set up of targets in dissimilar corners, merely from different player positions and with run up and/or jump to institute more detailed information well-nigh these variables.

Conclusions

In summary, information technology can be stated that throwing at the different corners of a handball goal results in faster throws to the ipsilateral side than the contralateral side, while consistency (bivariate variable fault) only decreases when throwing to the contralateral upper corner with experienced female handball players. Thereby, the study does not follow Fitts' constabulary (Fitts, 1954) that accuracy decreases when velocity increases and vice versa. As a result of the nowadays study, information technology is suggested to players who want to use a goalkeeper independent throwing strategy, when performing a penalty throw, they throw to the (upper) ipsilateral side of the goal, since the ball velocity is the highest here, without losing accuracy. This gives the goalkeeper less time to react and stop the ball; thereby, the chance of scoring is the highest for the player.

Information Availability Argument

The raw data supporting the conclusions of this commodity will be made available by the authors, without undue reservation.

Ethics Statement

The studies involving human participants were reviewed and approved past Norwegian Eye for Research Information (project number: 42440). The participants provided their written informed consent to participate in this study.

Author Contributions

The writer did all the work in collaboration with a educatee who did the information collection.

Conflict of Involvement

The author declares that the enquiry was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

Acknowledgments

Thank you to Trygve Gravdehaug for helping with the information collection.

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